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Why are there so many names for disc injuries in the back? I've heard the terms herniated disc, slipped disc, and bulging disc - but they all mean the same thing, right?

Actually, you've missed a few terms! A herniated disc can be called a slipped disc, bulging disc, ruptured disc, or even a pinched nerve, all depending on the person. They all mean the same thing, but why there are so many names for it isn't known.

The terms closest to herniated disc is bulging disc. Imagine the discs piled up one on top of the other. In between each disc is a gel that cushions the bones, or else they would be rubbing on each other. Through an injury, the gel can escape and leak out, putting pressure on the nearby nerves. This is what causes the pain.

Reference: 

Jon D. Lurie, MD, MS, et al. Patient Preferences and Expectations for Care. Determinants in Patients with Lumbar Intervertebral Disc Herniation. In Spine. November 2008. Vol. 33, No. Pp. 2663-2668.

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